A ciência cognitiva e a crença em fake news: um estudo exploratório
Palabras clave:
fake news, cognição, bullshits, desinformação, crençaResumen
A maneira como processamos informação pode determinar a capacidade de discernir fake news de notícias. Este estudo pretende compreender como os aspetos psicológicos e cognitivos estão relacionados com o consumo e divulgação de fake news. Aplicamos um inquérito a 712 participantes, os quais classificaram a credibilidade de um conjunto de títulos de fake news e notícias. Posteriormente, para traçar um perfil psicológico, avaliamos a habilidade cognitiva, o grau de reivindicar conhecimento exagerado e a recetividade a tretas ou bullshits dos participantes. Verificamos que o pensamento reflexivo pode combater o consumo e a disseminação de fake news. A crença em fake news está associada com a intuição, a reclamação de conhecimento excessivo e a aceitação de tretas. As pessoas mais interessadas por notícias de política são menos propensas a acreditar em fake news e em tretas. Assim, o conhecimento político e o raciocínio reflexivo podem ser elementos cruciais para resistir à desinformação política.
Citas
Ali, K., & Zain-ul-abdin, K. (2020). Post-truth propaganda: heuristic processing of political fake news on Facebook during the 2016 US presidential election. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 1–20.
Allcott, H., Gentzkow, M., & Yu, C. (2019). Trends in the diffusion of misinformation on social media. Research and Politics, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/2053168019848554
Allcott, Hunt, & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211–236. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.31.2.211
Amazeen, M. A., & Bucy, E. P. (2019). Conferring resistance to digital disinformation: The inoculating influence of procedural news knowledge. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 63(3), 415–432.
Bago, B., Rand, D. G., & Pennycook, G. (2020). Fake news, fast and slow: Deliberation reduces belief in false (but not true) news headlines. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
Baptista, J. (2020). Ethos, pathos e logos. Análise comparativa do processo persuasivo das (fake) news. Eikon, 1(7).
Baptista, J.P., & Gradim, A. (2020a). Online disinformation on Facebook: the spread of fake news during the Portuguese 2019 election. Journal of Contemporary European Studies. https://doi.org/10.1080/14782804.2020.1843415
Baptista, J.P., & Gradim, A. (2020b). Understanding fake news consumption: A review. Social Sciences, 9(10), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9100185
Baptista, João Pedro, & Gradim, A. (2021). “Brave New World” of fake news: how it works. Javnost - The Public.
Baptista, J.P., Correia, E., Gradim, A., & Piñeiro-Naval, V. (2021). The Influence of Political Ideology on Fake News Belief: The Portuguese Case. Publications (in press).
Barnidge, M., Gunther, A. C., Kim, J., Hong, Y., Perryman, M., Tay, S. K., & Knisely, S. (2020). Politically motivated selective exposure and perceived media bias. Communication Research, 47(1), 82–103.
Barron, D., Furnham, A., Weis, L., Morgan, K. D., Towell, T., & Swami, V. (2018). The relationship between schizotypal facets and conspiracist beliefs via cognitive processes. Psychiatry Research, 259, 15–20.
Bellur, S., & Sundar, S. S. (2014). How can we tell when a heuristic has been used? Design and analysis strategies for capturing the operation of heuristics. Communication Methods and Measures, 8(2), 116–137.
Bennett, W. L., & Livingston, S. (2018). The disinformation order: Disruptive communication and the decline of democratic institutions. European Journal of Communication, 33(2), 122–139. https://doi.org/10.1177/0267323118760317
Bing, M. N., Kluemper, D., Kristl Davison, H., Taylor, S., & Novicevic, M. (2011). Overclaiming as a measure of faking. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 116(1), 148–162. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.05.006
Bronstein, M. V, Pennycook, G., Bear, A., Rand, D. G., & Cannon, T. D. (2019). Belief in fake news is associated with delusionality, dogmatism, religious fundamentalism, and reduced analytic thinking. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 8(1), 108–117.
Câncio, F. (2020). ERC regista como “informativo” site de desinformação e propaganda. Diário de Notícias. https://www.dn.pt/edicao-do-dia/27-jan-2020/erc-regista-como-informativo-site-de-desinformacao-e-propaganda-11751353.html
Cano-Orón, L., Calvo, D., García, G. L., & Baviera, T. (2021). Disinformation in Facebook ads in the 2019 spanish general election campaigns. Media and Communication, 9(1), 217–228.
Cardoso, G., Moreno, J., & Narciso, P. (2019a). Social Media disinformation in the pre-electoral period in Portugal.
Cardoso, G., Paisana, M., & Pinto-Martinho, A. (2019b). The Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism: Reuters Digital News Report 2019 - Portugal. In Publicações OberCom. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2014.987545
Cardoso, G., Paisana, M., & Pinto-Martinho, A. (2020b). Reuters Digital News Report 2020 Portugal.
Cardoso, G., Pinto-Martinho, A., Narciso, I., Moreno, J., Crespo, M., Palma, N., & Sepúlveda, R. (2020a). Information and Misinformation on the Coronavirus in Portugal. Whatsapp, Facebook and Google Searches.
Cinelli, M., Cresci, S., Galeazzi, A., Quattrociocchi, W., & Tesconi, M. (2020). The limited reach of fake news on Twitter during 2019 European elections. PloS One, 15(6), e0234689.
Clayton, K., Blair, S., Busam, J. A., Forstner, S., Glance, J., Green, G., Kawata, A., Kovvuri, A., Martin, J., & Morgan, E. (2019). Real solutions for fake news? Measuring the effectiveness of general warnings and fact-check tags in reducing belief in false stories on social media. Political Behavior, 1–23.
Culloty, E., & Suiter, J. (2021). Anti-immigration disinformation. In The Routledge Companion to Media Disinformation and Populism (pp. 221–230). Routledge.
Del Vicario, M., Bessi, A., Zollo, F., Petroni, F., Scala, A., Caldarelli, G., Stanley, H. E., & Quattrociocchi, W. (2016). The spreading of misinformation online. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(3), 554 LP – 559. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1517441113
Ditto, P. H., Liu, B. S., Clark, C. J., Wojcik, S. P., Chen, E. E., Grady, R. H., Celniker, J. B., & Zinger, J. F. (2019). At least bias is bipartisan: A meta-analytic comparison of partisan bias in liberals and conservatives. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(2), 273–291.
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2008). Dual-processing accounts of reasoning, judgment, and social cognition. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 59, 255–278.
Evans, J. S., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 223–241.
Fallis, D., & Mathiesen, K. (2019). Fake news is counterfeit news. Inquiry, 1–20.
Faragó, L., Kende, A., & Krekó, P. (2019). We only believe in news that we doctored ourselves: The connection between partisanship and political fake news. Social Psychology.
Fazio, L. (2020). Pausing to consider why a headline is true or false can help reduce the sharing of false news. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(2).
Feeney, J. R., & Goffin, R. D. (2015). The Overclaiming Questionnaire: A good way to measure faking? Personality and Individual Differences, 82, 248–252. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.03.038
Ferrara, E. (2017). Disinformation and social bot in the run up to the 2017 French presidential election. First Monday, 22(8), 33.
Figeac, J., Smyrnaios, N., Salord, T., Cabanac, G., Fraisier, O., Ratinaud, P., & Seffusatti, F. (2020). Information-sharing practices on Facebook during the 2017 French presidential campaign: An “unreliable information bubble” within the extreme right. Communications. https://doi.org/10.1515/commun-2019-0193
Frankfurt, H. G. (2005). On bullshit. Princeton University Press.
Frederick, S. (2005). Cognitive reflection and decision making. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(4), 25–42.
Freelon, D., Marwick, A., & Kreiss, D. (2020). False equivalencies: Online activism from left to right. Science, 369(6508), 1197–1201.
Galeotti, A. E. (2019). Believing fake news. In A. Condello & T. Andina (Eds.), Post-Truth, Philosophy and Law (p. 58). Routledge.
Gelfert, A. (2018). Fake news: A definition. Informal Logic, 38(1), 84–117.
Gentzkow, M. (2016). Polarization in 2016. Toulouse Network for Information Technology Whitepaper, 1–23.
Gorman, S. E., & Gorman, J. M. (2016). Denying to the grave: Why we ignore the facts that will save us. Oxford University Press.
Grinberg, N., Joseph, K., Friedland, L., Swire-Thompson, B., & Lazer, D. (2019). Fake news on Twitter during the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Science, 363(6425), 374 LP – 378. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aau2706
Guess, A. M., Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2020). Exposure to untrustworthy websites in the 2016 US election. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(5), 472–480. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0833-x
Guess, A., Nagler, J., & Tucker, J. (2019). Less than you think: Prevalence and predictors of fake news dissemination on Facebook. Science Advances, 5(1), eaau4586.
Guo, L., A. Rohde, J., & Wu, H. D. (2020). Who is responsible for Twitter’s echo chamber problem? Evidence from 2016 US election networks. Information, Communication & Society, 23(2), 234–251.
Horne, B. D., & Adali, S. (2017). This just in: Fake news packs a lot in title, uses simpler, repetitive content in text body, more similar to satire than real news. Eleventh International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media.
Humprecht, E. (2019). Where ‘fake news’ flourishes: a comparison across four Western democracies. Information, Communication & Society, 22(13), 1973–1988. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1474241
ISCTE. (2019). Disinformation risks in Portugal’s election more Brazil than Europe? Risk assessment: online manipulation ahead of the portuguese parliamentary elections.
Jaster, R., & Lanius, D. (n.d.). Speaking of Fake News: Definitions and Dimensions. In S. Bernecker, A. Flowerree, & T. Grundmann (Eds.), The Epistemology of Fake News. Oxford University Press.
Jaster, R., & Lanius, D. (2018). What is fake news? Versus, 47(2), 207–224.
Jones-Jang, S. M., Mortensen, T., & Liu, J. (2019). Does Media Literacy Help Identification of Fake News? Information Literacy Helps, but Other Literacies Don’t. American Behavioral Scientist. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219869406
Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Macmillan.
Krueger, J. I., Vogrincic-Haselbacher, C., & Evans, A. M. (2019). We need a credible theory of gullibility. Forgas, JP & Baumeister, RF.
Lee, J. J., Kang, K.-A., Wang, M. P., Zhao, S. Z., Wong, J. Y. H., O’Connor, S., Yang, S. C., & Shin, S. (2020). Associations between COVID-19 misinformation exposure and belief with COVID-19 knowledge and preventive behaviors: cross-sectional online study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22(11), e22205.
Lorenz-Spreen, P., Lewandowsky, S., Sunstein, C. R., & Hertwig, R. (2020). How behavioural sciences can promote truth, autonomy and democratic discourse online. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(11), 1102–1109. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-020-0889-7
Luhmann, N. (1979). Trust and power (Chichester).
Martel, C., Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. (2019). Reliance on emotion promotes belief in fake news.
Marwick, A., & Lewis, R. (2017). Media manipulation and disinformation online. In New York: Data & Society Research Institute.
McKay, S., & Tenove, C. (2020). Disinformation as a Threat to Deliberative Democracy. Political Research Quarterly, 1065912920938143.
Metzger, M. J., Flanagin, A. J., & Medders, R. B. (2010). Social and heuristic approaches to credibility evaluation online. Journal of Communication, 60(3), 413–439.
Mihailidis, P., & Viotty, S. (2017). Spreadable Spectacle in Digital Culture: Civic Expression, Fake News, and the Role of Media Literacies in “Post-Fact” Society. American Behavioral Scientist, 61(4), 441–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764217701217
Morstatter, F., Shao, Y., Galstyan, A., & Karunasekera, S. (2018). From alt-right to alt-rechts: Twitter analysis of the 2017 german federal election. Companion Proceedings of the The Web Conference 2018, 621–628.
Mukerji, N. (2018). What is Fake News? Ergo: An Open Access Journal of Philosophy, 5.
Nelson, J. L., & Taneja, H. (2018). The small, disloyal fake news audience: The role of audience availability in fake news consumption. New Media and Society, 20(10), 3720–3737. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818758715
Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Kalogeropoulos, A., Levy, D. A. L., & Kleis Nielsen, R. (2018). Digital News Report 2018 (Issue 44). https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/digital-news-report-2018.pdf
Nickerson, R. S. (1998). Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology, 2(2), 175–220.
Paulhus, D. L., Harms, P. D., Bruce, M. N., & Lysy, D. C. (2003). The over-claiming technique: Measuring self-enhancement independent of ability. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 890.
Pena, P. (2019). Fábrica de mentiras. Viagem ao mundo das Fake News. (1oedition). Objectiva.
Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2019a). Lazy, not biased: Susceptibility to partisan fake news is better explained by lack of reasoning than by motivated reasoning. Cognition, 188, 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2018.06.011
Pennycook, Gordon, Cannon, T. D., & Rand, D. G. (2018). Prior exposure increases perceived accuracy of fake news. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.
Pennycook, Gordon, Cheyne, J. A., Barr, N., Koehler, D. J., & Fugelsang, J. A. (2015). On the reception and detection of pseudo-profound bullshit. Judgment and Decision Making, 10(6), 549–563.
Pennycook, Gordon, & Rand, D. (2020). The Cognitive Science of Fake News.
Pennycook, Gordon, & Rand, D. (2021). Examining false beliefs about voter fraud in the wake of the 2020 Presidential Election.
Pennycook, Gordon, & Rand, D. G. (2019b). Who falls for fake news? The roles of bullshit receptivity, overclaiming, familiarity, and analytic thinking. Journal of Personality. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12476
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In Communication and persuasion (pp. 1–24). Springer.
Pierri, F., Artoni, A., & Ceri, S. (2020). Investigating Italian disinformation spreading on Twitter in the context of 2019 European elections. PloS One, 15(1), e0227821.
Pop, M.-I., & Ene, I. (2019). Influence of the educational level on the spreading of Fake News regarding the energy field in the online environment. Proceedings of the International Conference on Business Excellence, 13(1), 1108–1117.
Ramírez-Dueñas, J. M., & Vinuesa-Tejero, M. L. (2021). How does selective exposure affect partisan polarisation? Media consumption on electoral campaigns. The Journal of International Communication, 1–25.
Rini, R. (2017). Fake news and partisan epistemology. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 27(2), E-43-E-64. https://doi.org/10.1353/ken.2017.0025
Rini, Regina. (2017). Fake news and partisan epistemology. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 27(2), E-43.
Roets, A. (2017). ‘Fake news’: Incorrect, but hard to correct. The role of cognitive ability on the impact of false information on social impressions. Intelligence, 65, 107–110.
Ross, R. M., Rand, D. G., & Pennycook, G. (2021). Beyond" fake news": Analytic thinking and the detection of false and hyperpartisan news headlines. Judgment & Decision Making, 16(2).
Salaverría, R., Buslón, N., López-Pan, F., León, B., López-Goñi, I., & Erviti, M.-C. (2020). Disinformation in times of pandemic: Typology of hoaxes on Covid-19 | Desinformación en tiempos de pandemia: Tipología de los bulos sobre la Covid-19. Profesional de La Informacion, 29(3), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.may.15
Salvi, C., Iannello, P., McClay, M., Rago, S., Dunsmoor, J. E., & Antonietti, A. (2021). Going viral: How fear, socio-cognitive polarization and problem-solving influence fake news detection and proliferation during COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Communication, 5, 127.
Schwarz, N., & Jalbert, M. (2021). When (fake) News feels true. –Stephan Lewandowsky, Cognitive Science, 73.
Shin, J., & Thorson, K. (2017). Partisan selective sharing: The biased diffusion of fact-checking messages on social media. Journal of Communication, 67(2), 233–255.
Silverman, C. (2016). This analysis shows how viral fake election news stories outperformed real news on Facebook. Buzzfeednews.
Sirota, M., Kostovičová, L., Juanchich, M., Dewberry, C., & Marshall, A. C. (2018). Measuring Cognitive Reflection without maths: developing and validating the verbal Cognitive Reflection Test.
Spiegel. (2016, February 24). Lying press? Germans lose faith in the fourth estate. Spiegel.
Spohr, D. (2017). Fake news and ideological polarization: Filter bubbles and selective exposure on social media. Business Information Review, 34(3), 150–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0266382117722446
Stanley, M. L., Barr, N., Peters, K., & Seli, P. (2020). Analytic-thinking predicts hoax beliefs and helping behaviors in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Thinking & Reasoning, 1–14.
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2000). Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 23(5), 645–665. https://doi.org/DOI: 10.1017/S0140525X00003435
Stelzenmüller, C. (2017). The impact of Russian interference on Germany’s 2017 elections. Testimony before the US Senate Select Committee on Intelligence June, 28. https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/sfr-cstelzenmuller-062817b.pdf
Stupple, E. J. N., Pitchford, M., Ball, L. J., Hunt, T. E., & Steel, R. (2017). Slower is not always better: Response-time evidence clarifies the limited role of miserly information processing in the Cognitive Reflection Test. PloS One, 12(11), e0186404.
Swami, V., Voracek, M., Stieger, S., Tran, U. S., & Furnham, A. (2014). Analytic thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories. Cognition, 133(3), 572–585.
Tagliabue, F., Galassi, L., & Mariani, P. (2020). The “pandemic” of disinformation in COVID-19. SN Comprehensive Clinical Medicine, 2(9), 1287–1289.
Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z. W., & Ling, R. (2018). Defining “Fake News”: A typology of scholarly definitions. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143
Tenove, C. (2020). Protecting Democracy from Disinformation: Normative Threats and Policy Responses. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 1940161220918740.
Thomson, K. S., & Oppenheimer, D. M. (2016). Investigating an alternate form of the cognitive reflection test. Judgment and Decision Making, 11(1), 99.
Thorson, E. (2016). Belief echoes: The persistent effects of corrected misinformation. Political Communication, 33(3), 460–480.
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2014). Assessing miserly information processing: An expansion of the Cognitive Reflection Test. Thinking & Reasoning, 20(2), 147–168.
Tripodi, F. (2018). Searching for alternative facts. In Data & Society.
Uscinski, J. E., Klofstad, C., & Atkinson, M. D. (2016). What drives conspiratorial beliefs? The role of informational cues and predispositions. Political Research Quarterly, 69(1), 57–71.
Van Bavel, J. J., & Pereira, A. (2018). The Partisan Brain: An Identity-Based Model of Political Belief. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(3), 213–224. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2018.01.004
van der Linden, S., Panagopoulos, C., & Roozenbeek, J. (2020). You are fake news: political bias in perceptions of fake news. Media, Culture and Society, 42(3), 460–470. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443720906992
Van Prooijen, J.-W., Krouwel, A. P. M., & Pollet, T. V. (2015). Political extremism predicts belief in conspiracy theories. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6(5), 570–578.
Vegetti, F., & Mancosu, M. (2020). The impact of political sophistication and motivated reasoning on misinformation. Political Communication, 37(5), 678–695.
Wardle, C., & Derakhshan, H. (2017). Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making. Council of Europe Report, 27.
Weisbuch, M., & Mackie, D. (2009). False fame, perceptual clarity, or persuasion? Flexible fluency attribution in spokesperson familiarity effects. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(1), 62–72. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcps.2008.12.009
Wiggins, B. E. (2017). Navigating an immersive narratology: Factors to explain the reception of fake news. International Journal of E-Politics (IJEP), 8(3), 16–29.
Woods, H. S., & Hahner, L. A. (2019). Make America meme again: The rhetoric of the Alt-right. Peter Lang Incorporated, International Academic Publishers.
Zimmer, F., Scheibe, K., Stock, M., & Stock, W. G. (2019). Echo chambers and filter bubbles of fake news in social media. Man-made or produced by algorithms. 8th Annual Arts, Humanities, Social Sciences & Education Conference, 1–22.
Descargas
Publicado
Número
Sección
Licencia
Autores que publicam nesta revista concordam com os seguintes termos:
- Autores conservam os direitos de autor e concedem à revista o direito de primeira publicação, com o trabalho simultaneamente licenciado sob a Licença Creative Commons Attribution que permite a partilha do trabalho com reconhecimento da autoria e publicação inicial nesta revista.
- Autores têm autorização para assumir contratos adicionais separadamente, para distribuição não-exclusiva da versão do trabalho publicada nesta revista (ex.: publicar em repositório institucional ou como capítulo de livro), com reconhecimento de autoria e publicação inicial nesta revista.
- Autores têm permissão e são estimulados a publicar e distribuir o seu trabalho online (ex.: em repositórios institucionais ou na sua página pessoal) a qualquer ponto antes ou durante o processo editorial, já que isso pode gerar alterações produtivas, bem como aumentar o impacto e a citação do trabalho publicado (Veja O Efeito do Acesso Livre).
